Apprehension around burgeoning medical research in the late 1800s and the first half of the 20 th century sparked concerns over the use of humans and animals in research , .Suspicions around the use of humans were deepened with the revelation of several exploitive research projects, including a series of medical . These 18 studies recruited study populations with a range of physical impairments including para- or quadriplegia, musculoskeletal disorders, and neuromuscular disorders. BBC - Ethics - Animal ethics: Experimenting on animals Other self-evaluation outcomes assessed with null findings included no differences in self-concept between control groups and those with mobility service dogs [37] or guide dogs [46], no differences in attitude towards a disability 4-months after receiving a mobility service dog [28] or among guide dog users compared to a control group [38], and no differences in flourishing among guide dog users compared to a control group [46]. For the study of most cognitive functions, lesion studies in animals have and will likely continue to provide insights that cannot be obtained through research on humans. Within cross-sectional studies, number of years since first partnering with an assistance dog ranged from 6-months to 45 years with means ranging from 29 years. Animal Domestication: Animal domestication is when humans take animals from the wild and keep them over successive generations in controlled environments where the animals are always available to humans. While there are no legal requirements specifying that an assistance dog must be certified, registered, or receive any specialized training to receive public access rights, independent organizations such as ADI, the International Association of Assistance Dog Partners (IAADP), and the International Guide Dog Federation (IGDF) define a set of minimum training and behavior standards for public access that help guide the assistance dog industry. This research aimed to conduct a systematic assessment of the current state of knowledge regarding the potential benefits of assistance dogs on standardized outcomes of the health and wellbeing of individuals with disabilities. However, positive findings were found in depression using the POMS by a different study [13]. Marguerite E. OHaire, Affiliation: [32] found no difference in occupational functioning 7-months after receiving a mobility service dog and Milan [41] found no group difference in those with and without a mobility service dog. The complete MEDLINE search strategy, which was adapted for the other databases, is shown in S1 Table. Cross-sectional studies had the highest sample sizes with an average sample size of N = 126 +/- 73 participants (range of N = 38316), while longitudinal studies averaged N = 29 +/- 18 participants (range of N = 1055). The Sad Truth About Pet Ownership and Depression - Psychology Today These are important issues that deserve better understanding and broader discussion. Equally important is the consideration of the potential harms to humans of not doing the research. Overall, studies addressed an average of 62% of methodological consideration items with a range of 23% (3/13) to 100% (15/15; denominators were variable as there were two items not applicable to all study designs). https://assistancedogsinternational.org/resources/adi-terms-definitions/, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(98)00120-8, https://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health-topics/study-quality-assessment-tools, https://www.cardiff.ac.uk/specialist-unit-for-review-evidence/resources/critical-appraisal-checklists, Corrections, Expressions of Concern, and Retractions. Finally, most studies (21/27;78%) compared outcomes to a control or comparison condition. Research has indicated that beyond the physical or tangible benefits that an assistance dog is trained to provide (e.g. Visual display of methodological ratings for N = 27 studies ordered by the number of studies addressing each item. The final sample included 24 articles (12 peer-reviewed publications, 12 unpublished theses/dissertations) containing 27 individual studies. However, almost all positive findings were accompanied by a null finding using the same or similar standardized measure in a different study. Another potential explanation for inconsistent findings across studies lies in the inherent variability of the assistance dog intervention itself. Unfortunately, many introductory textbooks dont give the full picture of animal research. However, it should be noted that this study by Allen & Blascovich has received considerable critique due to incredibly large effect sizes, unrealistic retention and response rates, and severe methodological omissions including a lack of reporting on recruitment, funding, or where assistance dogs were sourced and trained [despite repeated requests for clarification; 64, 65]. Longitudinal studies have found that individuals report improvements to their emotional wellbeing, social functioning, and quality of life just 3 to 6 months after receiving an assistance dog [1315]. To examine the relationship between methodological rigor score and year of publication as well as sample size, bivariate correlations were performed. The most common provider organizations represented were Canine Companions for Independence (CCI; six mobility service dog studies), Paws with a Cause (four mobility service dog studies), and Hearing Dogs for Deaf People (HDDP; four hearing dog studies). Of 5 studies that used the mental health domain of the SF-36 or the shorter 12-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-12), only Shintani et al. Further, the number of years spent with the assistance dog at the time of surveying was unknown for half of the cross-sectional studies [29, 37, 40, 4245]. Service dogs can assist individuals with physical disabilities (e.g. A majority of studies (18/27; 67%) assessed outcomes from mobility service dogs for individuals with physical disabilities. In parallel with an increasing amount of research quantifying the therapeutic benefits of companion dogs and therapy dogs on human health and wellbeing [5, 6], there has been an increased focus on quantifying the physical, psychological, and social effects that assistance dogs may have on their handlers [79]. Thoughts on limitations of animal models - ScienceDirect A health information specialist (JY) constructed and executed comprehensive search strategies in six electronic databases: MEDLINE (PubMed platform), Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) (EBSCOhost platform), ERIC (EBSCOHost), Web of Science Core Collection (Web of Science), PsycINFO (EBSCOhost), and PsycARTICLES (EBSCOhost). Regarding emotional health, 7/15 (46%) outcomes were significant across group or condition. On the other hand, Donovan [28] found no change in emotional functioning 4-months after receiving mobility service dog. Using the CHART, both Milan [41] and Davis [44] found no group differences in social integration among those with a mobility service dog control groups. Other studies found no effect of having a mobility service dog on quality of life including more specific measures such as physical and environmental quality of life [33, 34]. The roles of dogs to assist in improving human wellbeing continue to expand. Our search procedure identified 24 articles containing 27 studies assessing psychosocial outcomes from a wide variety of human and assistance dog populations. Advantages & Disadvantages | a2-level-level-revision, psychology A final potential reason for outcome discrepancies is variation in methodological rigor across studies. This effect may be compounded by the possibility that those who apply for an assistance dog may inherently have certain positive characteristics (e.g., stable housing, stable finances, has a familial support system) that contribute to overall psychosocial health. Table 6 summarizes vitality outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general energy/vitality and sleep. Of 27 studies, 19 (70%) reported outcomes a quality of life measure with a total of 13 different standardized measures used. Medical service dogs for diabetes and seizure alert/response were rarely studied [16, 35], and were assessed in conjunction with mobility service dogs rather than on their own. Ethical and Scientific Considerations Regarding Animal Testing - PLOS This is the result of a new study led by researchers at the University of Mannheim and the Max Planck Institute for Human Development in Berlin The first emphasizes that the welfare of animals is important in its own right and that animals must be treated humanely. In other contexts, dogs can be specially trained to provide specific benefits to individuals with impairments, disabilities, or chronic conditions as trained assistance animals. This variation in assessment times makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions on conflicting findings. However, when more than one few companies uses the same resources and provide competitive parity are also known as rare resources. Animal models are used in experiments in the behavioural neurosciences that aim to contribute to the prevention and treatment of cognitive and affective disorders in human beings, such as anxiety and depression. Methodological rigor also did not significantly correlate with year of publication (r = 0.327, p = 0.096) nor total sample size (r = 0.258, p = 0.194). Assistance Dogs International (ADI) defines three types of assistance dogs, of which we use as terminology in this review: guide dogs who assist individuals with visual impairments, hearing dogs who assist individuals with hearing impairments, and service dogs who assist individuals with disabilities other than blindness or deafness [3]. [15] found no difference in self-esteem, adequacy, or competency over 12-months following receiving a mobility service dog. Of the 44 positive comparisons, 36 (82%) were from published papers and 8 (18%) were from unpublished theses. While both reviews found mostly positive findings regarding mobility, guide, and hearing dogs effects on their handlers health and wellbeing, social interactions, and activity participation [7, 8], it was concluded that the small number of studies and methodological limitations of these studies preclude any clear conclusions [8]. Probably not, in much the same way that nonhuman research that permitted a significant human study to be conducted is rarely described in todays textbooks. PLOS is a nonprofit 501(c)(3) corporation, #C2354500, based in San Francisco, California, US. [16] found no difference in sleep disturbance between individuals with mobility or medical service dog and a control group. Most longitudinal studies (8/12) assessed participants at two time points: at baseline prior to receiving an assistance dog, and an average of 5.8 +/- 3.3 months after participants received an assistance dog (range of 312 months follow-up). As the field of animal-assisted intervention is multidisciplinary, a wide and extensive search was conducted encompassing medical and scientific databases. In these studies, positive findings (i.e., better social functioning in those with an assistance dog compared to a control group) may be partially attributed to an unmeasured variable driving the group difference [77]. Learning and language theories.An interesting insight into the animal world DisadvantagesThe Ethics of animal testing. However, 2 studies found worse occupational functioning in terms of employment, schooling, or homemaking. Funding: The authors received no specific funding for this work. Table 4 summarizes the social outcomes across studies within the sub-categories of general social functioning, loneliness, and social participation. In terms of general social functioning, 2/10 comparisons made were significant. In methods sections, only 16/27 (59%) of studies indicated whether ethical approval for conducting human subjects research was sought and received. Many scientists study animal behavior because it sheds light on human beings. Regarding social participation, 14 comparisons were made in which 4/14 were significant (29%). Disadvantages of animal studies in psychology, are the finest-quality pictures of lovely, adorable animals that we have gathered for you and Friend. He is currently the chair of APAs Committee on Animal Research and Ethics. Animal Studies of Attachment: Lorenz and Harlow | Psychology - tutor2u However, other studies reported no relationship between having a mobility service dog and self-esteem via the RSES [39, 41] or other standardized measures of self-esteem [15, 28, 36]. Discover a faster, simpler path to publishing in a high-quality journal. Advantages and disadvantages of animal models commonly used for | Download Scientific Diagram Advantages and disadvantages of various animal models in biomedical | Download Scientific Diagram Neuron. Therefore, detailed descriptions of study populations is critical for helping the field understand for whom assistance dogs are beneficial regarding social, emotional, or psychological health and under what contexts or conditions [74]. The most notable weaknesses included a lack of adequate reporting in the methodological sections, which not only limits interpretation of findings but prevents reproducibility. Human participants in these studies included those with hearing or visual impairments, diabetes, and seizure disorders. Part of the justification for why nonhuman animals are studied in psychology has to do with the fact of evolution. Lack of control: Another downside is that the experimenter cannot control for outside variables. Will this monkey study, which enabled such a discovery to be made, be described? To date, there have been several reviews summarizing the literature on the psychosocial effects of assistance dogs on their handlers. The most commonly studied type of assistance dog was mobility service dogs, followed by hearing dogs. [16] found higher emotional functioning in those with a mobility or medical service dog compared to a control group. Using a new technique, it is now possible to temporarily inactivate the amygdala in a monkey and see how other brain areas (including those that are not directly connected to the amygdala) change their activity (Grayson et al., 2016). Most studies (17/27; 63%) recruited from a single assistance dog provider organization, while the remaining studies recruited from a range of providers (7/27; 26%) or did not report the source of the assistance dogs in the study (3/27; 11%). In addition, many studies did not account for confounding variables such as having a pet dog, the progressiveness or type of disability, or relationship status. Psychology Research: Psychological Research on Animals Last updated 22 Mar 2021. Of 27 studies, 20 (74%) assessed a psychological outcome with a total of 24 different standardized measures. This pattern suggests a potential publication bias present in which disproportionately more positive findings are in the published studies than the unpublished theses [78]. The specific aims were to (1) describe the key characteristics of studies (2) evaluate the methodological rigor of studies (3) summarize outcomes. However, results suggested that for most outcomes, having an assistance dog had no effect on psychosocial health and wellbeing. The rationale for excluding studies on emotional service dogs and psychiatric service dogs is that the primary benefits of these dogs are psychological in nature, rather than physical or medical, which complicated comparisons of their psychosocial effects. Studies were eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) The study population consisted of current or prospective owners/handlers of an assistance dog (including service, guide, hearing, and/or medical alert or response dogs) with a physical disability or chronic condition in which the assistance dog is trained to do work or perform tasks directly related to the disability or condition [4]; (2) The study collected original data on the effect of the assistance dog on their handler with at least one psychosocial outcome, including those quantifying aspects of mental health, social health, and health-related quality of life; and (3) The psychosocial outcome(s) were collected via a standardized measure tested for validity and reliability. Can you really generalise results from animals to humans? In this review, we have provided a primer on permanent and reversible lesion techniques currently in use in animal research, and a brief discussion of how they might . [45] found higher health-related quality of life among those with a mobility service dog compared to a control group, but not among those with a hearing dog. The remaining four longitudinal studies assessed participants 35 times with final follow-up ranging from 924 months after receiving an assistance dog.
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